4. Theoretical Innovations in Aesthetics (Part I)

The study of aesthetics is embedded in the branches of knowledge of philosophy, art, architecture, and the behavioral sciences. In essence, appreciating beauty in architecture is a factor of the inner human feelings experiencing the architecture and of the qualities of the architecture itself. Both subjective and objective factors are believed to influence one's aesthetic appreciation of architecture, which in turn varies over time and across people suggesting that individual characteristics and trends of the time affect the judgments of beauty. Consequently one needs to know and understand the prevailing aesthetic beliefs of the time.

1. Architectural & urban theories of aesthetics

Architectural theories and directions such as functionalism, post modernism and others embody within them theories of aesthetics. Functionalism for example have suggested that aesthetics comes from adherence to functional and structural clarify and appearance. In contrast, post modernism have promoted that aesthetics comes from the ornamentations and relevance to historical elements. In recent times, architects seem to struggle on the theoretical understanding of aesthetics as either related to modernity or tradition or somewhere in between. Advocates of modernity assume present or futuristic principles for aesthetic appreciation. Advocates of tradition assume historical principles and values guiding one's aesthetic appreciation. Others attempt to combine modernity with tradition in a more balanced approach suggesting that aesthetic enjoyment emanates from history but should be directed to the present and heading for the future. The following discussion presents samples of key theoretical developments starting with the historical ideology of Plato.

• Philosophical theories of aesthetics

Plato's involvement with the study of aesthetics is profound, rational, and highly influential upon centuries of classic architecture. He called for imposing styles, presented a philosophical theory of form that developed into the “Platonic Solids,” promoted art as a social responsibility, and thought that ideal forms related to particular things in everyday life thus giving them meaning and pleasantness. Everything is a mere variation of the ideal forms that he developed and which represent excellence in beauty and splendor. Platonic forms, he claims, are responsive to the foundation of the universe, are value-laden, and are eternally beautiful because they are made with care and precision in proper proportions based upon mathematical measurements (Lesnikowski, 1982). His reliance on mathematics and geometry as scientific arguments summed up his form theory. Issues of line, angles, ratio, and proportion make up the features of aesthetic designs. Symmetry and proportional systems became the core of the Plato-derived theory of classicist style (Lesnikowski, 1982). Additional historical developments of theories of aesthetics are considered beyond the scope of this paper which focuses upon the modern directions; nevertheless, extra information can be found elsewhere (Groat & Despres, 1990; Nesbitt, 1996).

• Architectural theories and principles of aesthetics

Search for new architectural language has been a target for many architects over the years but particularly during the past one hundred years or so compared to the change in architectural vocabulary and language over the entire history of architecture. The speed of architectural evolution in recent times is perhaps a reflection of the speed of life in modern times or an indication of the dissatisfaction with the status quo of architecture. Architect's quest for beautiful architecture has developed into many directions and trends. Pluralism became synonymous with the diversity of contemporary architectural aesthetics. A review of the entire range of directions particularly during the last one hundred years is certainly beyond the scope of this paper. The critical issues to be highlighted are the way architectural theory has contributed to aesthetic design and whether or not more recent ideas exist in the repertoire of architectural literature.

The essence of architectural aesthetics does not seem to change much over time. The search into the better proportions as one of the design principles, best use of ordering principles, and the organizations of form and space have held their ground as major components of interest to architects. Principles of aesthetics in the time of Vitruvius included order, arrangement, eurythmy and forms of symmetry are in essence similar to principles of today but with different ways of expression. Le Corbusier (1978) also emphasized order as a fundamental principle of aesthetic design by writing:

“The house, the street, the town, are points to which human energy is directed: they should be ordered, otherwise they counteract the fundamental principles round which they revolve; if they are not ordered, they oppose themselves to us, they thwart us, as the nature all around us thwarts us, though we have striven with it, and with it begin each day a new struggle” (Le Corbusier, 1978, p.21).

Le Corbusier compared the engineer's aesthetic with architecture by indicating that they match together and follow from one another. He asserts that the engineer achieves harmony “inspired by the law of economy and governed by mathematical calculation, put us in accord with universal law.” (Le Corbusier, 1982, p.16).

Architects have attempted to study the proportions that would result in beautiful forms and shapes that the eye would be pleased with such as the Golden Section in historic times, Leonardo Da Vinci's illustrations of the “ideal man,” Le Modulor by Le Corbusier, and others. The universal notion is that human beings are most pleased when viewing objects that follow certain mathematical principles or orderly relationships between its parts (i.e. proportion). Rasmussen (1962) among others (Rob Krier's 1988 extensive analysis on architectural composition is an important architectural contribution to the study of formal and spatial components of aesthetics) point to the importance of proportion and scale (perceived relative size compared to something else) in achieving visual harmony, an essential principle for aesthetic design. Rhythm, another related principle, is also regarded as important in aesthetic design. Rasmussen brings up the notion of “variations on a theme” as a guideline for achieving aesthetic design with order, harmony and variety altogether. Solid-void relationships, contrast, texture, daylight and color are other visual principles of aesthetic design (Rasmussen, 1962). His assumptions for the visual attraction to architecture is in its ability to make viewers engage in exploring the information in the facades, a point confirmed later by behavioral scientists (see Kaplan and Kaplan's work later). In explaining his assertion, he says:

“If an architect wants his building to be a real experience he must employ forms, and combinations of forms, which will not let the spectator off so easily but force him to active observation. … Another way to make a strong impression is to employ familiar forms that have been given an eccentric turn which will take the spectator by surprise and force him to regard the work more closely. In both cases it is a question of creating purely visual effects.” (Rasmussen, 1962, p.49)

Does the architect have the right to do what he or she pleases? Should architecture be reduced to purely visual effects? This attitude, raised by these questions, is exactly what made critics of modern architecture resentful of architects and their intentions. Venturi's (1974) rejection of picturesque architecture (expressionism) or simplification on the expense of complexity and contradiction is a reaction to creating architecture that is more humane and tied to popular culture. His notions of new architecture led to the so-called post modernism ; originally a term that “describes a world view that rejects all Western world's verities such as the religious, rational or humanist” (Lampugnani, 1997, p. 267). In architecture though, it came to be known as an eclectic style combined from various elements from different architectural periods, often the classical. Nevertheless, it developed into a model that brings in the societal factors as key deciding factors in aesthetic formations. Therefore architecture of this type claims it is related to social values and its meanings by being more pluralistic in its use of design elements. Other shifted focus to create an autonomous architecture that “does not derive its rationale and meaning from anything external to itself” (Lampugnani, 1997, p. 268), such as Peter Eisenman's work.

A similar reaction to modernism led rise to the so-called regionalism . This approach attempts to derive aesthetic principles from the local culture and context such as work in developing countries (Curtis, 1996), where tradition reflects visually in the modern designs of buildings. Roth (1993) describes the directions architecture is taking since the late twentieth century as directions searching for meaning as the core and cause of aesthetic expression. This is consistent with the behavioral approach to aesthetics, which emphasizes meaning to complement the formal attributes of aesthetics.

The struggle between designing with universal principles of for local principles has been shaping the recent quest for architectural aesthetics. The struggle between the old and the new, the local and the universal has affected architecture in developing countries, many of who were searching for national identities after freedom from colonial rule. This led countries to re-examine their local traditions while trying to relate to broad trends of the contemporary world (Curtis, 1996). Curtis observes:

“In recent years, the question of what constitutes a region or a nation has, if anything, become even more confused. For this ha been a period characterized by a worldwide standardization of products, images, fashions and ideas on the one hand, and by an ever greater pluralism of identities, fashions, confederations and territorial allegiances on the other. … At the same time urbanization has proceeded at a great pace and the rural base (once supposed to have secreted the ‘essence' of local identity according to thinkers like Hassan Fathy) has been gradually eroded, depopulated, exploited by international agri-business, or submitted to the ravages of extra-urban development. In the process, the inner life of vernacular languages-whether spoken or built-has been further destroyed.” (Curtis, 1996, p.636)

In the Islamic world for example, aesthetics of modern architecture borrowed from the language of Islamic architecture such as visual ambiguity and spatial layering (Curtis, 1996). This approach gave rise to regionalism , classical revival , and contemporary vernacular architecture (Steele, 1997).

Technological advances have shaped new aesthetics apparent in many of the buildings in the last few decades. The high tech style emphatically uses structural and material characteristics as powerful visual signs, thus creating the aesthetics of machines. Abstraction and structural expressionism has also been guiding some architectural movements. The ideas of nature, ecology, and the environment remain as a powerful force driving architectural aesthetics in its turn into the 21 st century; leading to the popular sustainable architecture direction. Architecture of contemporary times is characterized by great geographical diversity and intellectual pluralism (Curtis, 1996). Table (1) summarizes some of the most recent architectural trends and emphasizes their idea of aesthetic imagery.

Architectural Direction	Aesthetic Imagery
New Modernism	Loyal to modernism, emphasize aesthetics of formal composition – E.g. Richard Meier, Charles Gwathmy, I.M. Pei, Rem Koolhaus, Steven Holl
Post Modernism	Rejection of simplistic expression of International Style, calls for use of ornamentation, increase complexity and ambiguity – E.g. Michael Graves, Robert Stern
Popular Architecture	Rejects functional expression of form in favor of bold ornamentation with “funny” or “sarcastic” attitude reflecting a culture of consumerism and popular values – E.g. Michael Graves, Robert Stern, Arate Isozaki (it is an exaggerated expression of post modernism
Regionalism	Based on the language of the local traditions, and context – E.g. Antoine Predock
Contemporary Vernacular	Rejects “aesthetic anonymity of International Style Modernism” (Steele, 1997, p.226) in favor of traditional national styles – E.g. Hassan Fathy, Rasem Badran, Ricardo Legorreta (similar to regionalism)
New Expressionism	Structural expressionism (“relying upon the dynamic accentuation of elements of construction;” Curtis, 1996, p.661) – E.g. Santiago Calatrava Formal fragmentation (ambiguity by breaking normal conventions of form relationships) – E.g. Frank Gehry
High-Tech Architecture	Expression of technology that emulated product design – E.g. Richard Rogers, Norman Foster
Classical Revival	Reinterprets language of classical architecture in new forms and uses
Computer Age Design	Manipulation of form assisted by computer advancement – E.g. Zaha Hadid, Frank Gehry, Daniel Libeskind
Ecological design / Sustainable architecture	Relies on environmental and ecological principles of nature to derive aesthetic imagery by combining architecture with nature – E.g. Ken Yeang

Table (1): Most recent architectural trends and aesthetic imagery

 

A relatively recent attempt to quantify design to generate forms with acceptable aesthetic values is in the work of Mitchell (1990). He uses language as an analogous means to understand architectural forms and design grids.

Another bold attempt to revisit the principles, processes, and factors shaping architecture is presented by Alexander (2004). He proposes a fresher look at architecture and how it is practiced. By adopting a wholeness look at the world and not parts or fragments, he searches for order, a condition of life in buildings. He brings in mathematical principles to study attributes of design configuration as a whole such as symmetry, connectedness, convexity, connectivity, homogeneity, boundaries, and sharp changes of features. His elaborate work also addresses the process of design and linking it to natural phenomena, to the process of building, to cosmological influences, and to new visions of one's self. Alexander's work is in essence a continuation of his earlier development of pattern language in design (Alexander, 1977, 1979) and its degree of impact on architecture remains to be seen.

One of the most recent developments in architectural aesthetics has to do with the influence of the computer on the design process (Sutton, 1999). The computer's ability to generate graphics with mathematical precisions that are easily editable have led to architecture the kind built by Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, and Daniel Libeskind. This computer-assisted architecture has brought up new language of aesthetic design never experienced before. It almost at times appears experimental and at other times strange. Aesthetic responses to these kinds of buildings vary dramatically.

Most architectural movements such as post modernism , deconstruction and neo-expressionism had close associations with art movements all along (Dempsey, 2002). Notable in the discussion of this paper is the work of Rudolf Arnheim. His artistic approach to visual perception has elaborated on aesthetic principles of balance, shape, form, growth, space, light, color, movement, dynamics, and expression (Arnheim, 1974). Shortly later, Arnheim (1977) echoes Rasmussen, by calling for the attention to the visual effects of architecture as essential to experiencing our environment. He calls for architects not to let functional, economic or even social factors detract from the necessity of achieving visually pleasing buildings. He also addresses spatial and formal elements, order, mobility, dynamics, symbols and expression. Table (2) summarizes some aesthetic design principles common between architecture and art.

Elements of Design	Principles of Design
Line Shape Value Color Movement Size Pattern	Unity Harmony Contrast Rhythm Repetition Gradation Balance Dominance / Emphasis

Table (2): Aesthetic design principles and elements of design in art and common in architecture (Leland, 1990)

On the urban scale, Kevin Lynch's seminal work of the Image of the City (1960) has led the way into studying the cognitive images people hold of their cities. The basic principles of nodes, paths, districts, landmarks, and edges that shape one's perception of environmental legibility has influenced generations of architects and urban planners. Many scientific studies followed suit and attempted to study cognitive maps or spatial cognition for a variety of settings (Herzog & Olivia, 2003) and on the effects of wayfinding on the visual experience of citizens and the spatial requirements to make environments more legible (Baskaya, Wilson & Ozcan, 2004; Dogu, 2000).

One of the relatively modern approaches to creating scenic environments is the ecological or nature-related approach, which bridges both fields of architecture and urban design. Making cities sustainable and ecologically sensitive assumes a more aesthetic and meaningful experience (Hough, 1989). This can be done by preserving and integrating nature into the city. For example, design streets as urban parks rather than merely for car or pedestrian utilitarian traffic. Linking urban parks in one system is another example that helps create a better aesthetic and meaningful image of the city.

Most of the aesthetic movements in architecture, urban design, art, and philosophy have been predominantly nonscientific and subjective. This does not necessarily mean that they should be neglected but that the credibility of their propositions is sometimes in question. They are simply a reflection of ideological stances and epistemological views of the respective fields of study. Environment behavior theories, as explained in the next section, attempts to take the scientific path for truth finding. Interestingly, many of the earlier principles of aesthetics proposed in architectural disciplines have found legitimate grounds in the scientific arena. This only proves the need for more integration between pure architecture and behavioral sciences to discover more on aesthetic principles.

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