Topic 5

Data Collection I: Observational Techniques

• Notes
• Discussion
• Readings
• Links

Notes

Observation

In the "wheel" of the research process (see link), data gathering comes in stage three following the problem identification and research design stages. If the design of the research is problematic, then the effort done in the data gathering may become partially or fully wasted. This lecture focuses on one major type of data gathering techniques which is observation. Observation involves the systematic and careful observation of subjects, objects, or phenomena in their natural setting. The technique is particularly useful in the field of architecture and urban design although it is extensively used in social and ethnographic research.

A. Naturalistic Observation

Sometimes called direct or non participant observation. The observer in this type is considered an OUTSIDER. One can differentiate two types of naturalistic observation: 

• the secret outsider
• the recognized outsider

• What to look for?

Zeisel (1984) summarizes the important items to look for during the observation of environmental behavior. They are:

1. Who is: actor
2. Doing what: act
3. With whom: significant others
4. In what relationship: describes the relationship between the actor and the others such as aural, visual, tactile, olfactory, or symbolic type relationship
5. In what context: describes the sociocultural context including the situation and culture
6. Where (Setting): describes the physical setting

• Recording devices

Observations can be recorded using photographs, pre-coded checklists, maps, notations, or videotapes and movies (Zeisel, 1984). Mapping observed behavior is a well known technique called behavioral mapping, which is an annotated diagram or map of observed behavior. Notations are basically written description of the observed behavior. The notation could be in the form of one sentence to which the researcher can add comments later. Pre-coded checklists are ready-made charts that include expected types of observations and a designed coding system to be used on the field.

B. Participant Observation

Participant observation is when the observer is an INSIDER. One can differentiate two types of participant observation: 

• the marginal participant
• the full participant

• Concerns with participant observation

A serious ethical concern arises when dealing with participant observation. Would the participant observer be considered cheating on the community that he became involved with? 

C. Observation of Physical Traces

Observation of physical traces is a particularly useful techniques in architecture and urban design. The simplicity and unobtrusiveness of the techniques makes it one of the easiest data gathering to conduct. It could be used to gather data in early stages of the research such as for exploration or it can be used in detailed and information extensive data gathering.

• What to look for?

Zeisel (1984) summarizes the important items to look for during the observation of physical traces. They are:

1. By-products of use: including signs of erosions, leftovers, and missing traces
2. Adaptations for use: including props, separations, and connections
3. Displays of self: including personalization, identification, and group membership
4. Public messages: including official, unofficial, and illegitimate signs
5. Context: understand how traces clarify the context and how the context clarifies the traces.

• Recording devices

Observations can be recorded using photographs, drawings, annotated diagrams, or counting (Zeisel, 1984).

Comparing Observation Techniques

The following is a chart summarizing the qualities of each technique (adapted from Zeisel, 1984).

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Discussion

The following items are topics for discussion during this lecture. Students should prepare their thoughts and ideas around these topics.

• What are the types of observational techniques?
• Reasons for doing observation
• What to look for during observation
• What are the recording devices for observation?
• What are the qualities of observing physical traces and observing environmental behavior

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Readings

• On observation

• Zeisel, J. (1984). Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behavior Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Chapter 7, pp.89-110, Observing Physical Traces).
• Zeisel, J. (1984). Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behavior Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Chapter 8, pp.111-136, Observing Environmental Behavior).

General References

• Leavitt, F. (1991). Research Methods for Behavioral Scientists. IA: WCB Publishers. (especially chapter 10)
• Sommer, R. & Sommer, B.B. (1997). A Practical Guide to Behavioral Research, 4th ed. Oxford University Press. (especially chapter 4)
• Zeisel, J. (1984). Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behavior Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (especially chapters 7 & 8)

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Links

• Observational field research: A brief account on deciding on observation, types of observation, and variables in observation.

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This page last revised: 20/04/05