Topic 2

Research Methods

• Notes
• Discussion
• Readings
• Links

Notes

The research process

Simply speaking the research process involves the following procedure: you are faced with a problem; you offer a suggestion for its solution; you test your suggestion; you evaluate the result of your test to determine if the problem is resolved or not; you may offer recommendations and conclusions for others in either case.

The scientific research process can be summarized as including the following systematic steps or phases:

1. Problem identification (Initiating the research)
2. Research design (Designing the research)
3. Data collection (Conducting the research)
4. Data analysis (Examining the research data)
5. Data evaluation (Establishing the research findings)
6. Conclusions and recommendations (Reporting the research)

All these steps or phases are related to theory governing the topic under study

Please refer to the diagram of the research process 

Deduction and Induction

The process of research may happen in one of two ways.

Deductive research is research that starts with theory or ideas. Data is then collected to test or refine the theory. Deduction is from the general to the specific. Deduction follows the sequence of theory-then-research according to the following stages:

1. Construct a theory or model
2. Select a proposition (hypothesis) from the theory for empirical investigation
3. Design a research to test the proposition
4. If the proposition is rejected therefore make changes in theory or research project and return to step two
5. If the proposition is not rejected, the researcher selects other propositions to test and improve the theory

Inductive research is research that starts with data. Data is then analyzed to induce a theory to explain the data. Induction is from the specific to the general. Induction follows the sequence of research-then-theory according to the following stages:

1. Investigate the phenomenon and delineate its attributes
2. Measure the attributes in a variety of situations
3. Analyze the resulting data to determine systematic patterns of variations
4. Theory is constructed from the discovered systematic patterns

Classifications of research

Research types or methods can be classified in several ways based upon different criteria. The following is a summary of some of the classifications of various research types.

A - Based upon the relation with the real world

1. Basic research: Research that seeks to resolve basic and fundamental problems regardless of whether or not the researcher seeks direct impact on everyday life
2. Applied research: Research that seeks to resolve actual everyday life problems
3. Action research: Research that seeks to resolve real life issues by influencing change and help take action towards resolving the problem

B - Based upon the kind of evidence or source data

1. Primary research: Research that relies on newly collected and innovatively generated first-hand data
2. Secondary research: Research that relies upon existing references and data previously collected second-hand data

C - Based upon purpose of research (kinds of inferences) or chronological standpoint

1. Exploratory research: Research that seeks to make an initial investigation of a problem
2. Descriptive research: Research that seeks to describe a problem and recognize what is happening or has occurred about the problem
3. Explanatory research: Research that seeks to explain the causes of a particular problem and answer why a phenomenon or a problem has occurred the way it did  

D - Based upon the role of the hypothesis of the study (purpose)

1. Formulative research: Research that seeks to build up theory or knowledge about a particular phenomenon or problem
2. Verification research: Research that seeks to verify, test, confirm, corroborate, prove, substantiate, authenticate a theory or assumption about a particular phenomenon or problem, or refute, contradict, and disprove such a theory or assumption

E - Based upon type of relationship between the variables of the study

1. Experimental research: Research that seeks to establish a causal relationship between variables. This type is sometimes called true experimental research.
2. Quasi-experimental research: Research that seeks to establish a less-than-causal relationship between variables. This type is sought after when experimental research is not possible
3. Correlational research: Research that seeks to establish the existence of a relationship, connection, or association among variables that is not a causal relationship, but good enough for the purpose of the study.

F - Based upon status of evidence (in existence or not) and upon possible degree of controlling the conditions under which the collection of data are to take place

1. Historical research: A research type used when the evidence data is in existence but simply needs to be located and evaluated.
2. Descriptive research: A research type used when the evidence data needs to be generated and collected (it is not in existence yet) and when controlling the conditions surrounding the generation of evidence is not possible
3. Experimental research: A research type used when the evidence data needs to be generated and collected (it is not in existence yet) and when controlling the conditions surrounding the generation of evidence is possible including the ability of the researcher to assign subjects at random to groups under study
4. Quasi-experimental research: A research type used when the evidence data needs to be generated and collected (it is not in existence yet) and when controlling the conditions surrounding the generation of evidence is possible but when the researcher cannot assign subjects at random to groups under study  

G - Based upon the nature of the research question

1. Descriptive research: Research that seeks to investigate and examine a problem
2. Relational research: A correlational research that seeks to explore the relationships between variables
3. Causal research: An experimental research that seeks to explore the causal relationship between variables

H - Based upon true control of events surrounding the collection of data

1. Experimental research (includes true experiments of all kinds)
2. Non-experimental research (includes historical, descriptive, correlational, and quasi-experimental research types)

I - Based upon research context or strategy

1. Case study research: Research that focuses upon one case study for gathering data
2. Survey research: Research that focuses upon a group of subjects for gathering data
3. Experimental research: Research that focuses upon conducting an experiment for gathering data

J - Based upon units of analysis

1. Individual: Research that focuses upon individuals for the collection of data
2. Groups: Research that focuses upon groups of individuals for the collection of data
3. Organizational: Research that focuses upon organizations for the collection of data
4. Artifacts: Research that focuses upon “physical things” for the collection of data
5. Phenomena: Research that focuses upon “non-physical things” for the collection of data

K - Based upon the time dimension

1. Cross-sectional research: Research conducted and data collected at one point in time (usually exploratory and descriptive)
2. Longitudinal research: Research conducted and data collected over an extended period of time. Trend studies focus on studying changes of general population over time. Cohort studies focus on studying changes of relatively specific subpopulations over time. Panel studies focus on studying the same set of people over time.

L - Based upon the type of data collected in the study

1. Quantitative research: Research that relies upon quantitative-type data (usually statistical-type study)
2. Qualitative research: Research that relies upon qualitative-type data

M - Based upon the data collection techniques used

1. Observational research: Research that includes naturalistic, participant, or physical traces observational techniques
2. Survey research: Research that includes questionnaires or interviews
3. Archival research: Research that includes using existing documents
4. Experimental research: Research that includes the use of experiments of any type
5. Others etc.

Although this last classification scheme is sometimes presented as types of research, I like to distinguish the data collection techniques from the other classifications of research types. Once you decide on a research type, which could borrow from more than one classification, then you may decide on one or more technique for the collection of data. This separation reduces the tendency in some students to get confused between the terms research types and data collection techniques.

Criteria for good research

Many criteria may exist for good research. From a methodological point of view, the following are the main criteria.

1. Reliability: The dependability and trustworthiness of the research (measurements, findings, etc.). A reliable measure is a measure that yields consistent assessments among different occasions for one researcher or among different researchers under the same conditions.

2. Validity: The soundness and correctness, accuracy and precision, of the information provided in the research. A valid measurement is a measurement that correctly measures what it is it intended to measure.

3. Generalizability: The ability of the research to be generalized or widely applied to larger populations or settings or situations.

4. Utility: The potential for research to be used in improving the status quo and as a basis for action or purpose. This criterion is about the degree of usability of research in policy-making and decision-making.

Ethics in research

Conducting research in a proper and authentic way is essential. Among the concerns that each researcher should be aware of is to maintain the highest level of ethics in research. Deception in all its forms must be avoided. Ethics is involved while preparing for research, while conducting research, and while reporting research.

Ethics while preparing research

Usually you need to inform the people acting as subjects in your study that they are actually participating in your study. They should be aware that they are subjects of your study. You do not have to tell them the specific objectives of the study as this may influence their responses and your measurements. In certain cases you have to have a written permission of your subjects; this is called informed consent.

Ethics while conducting research

If your research involves studying people, you have to be sure that no harm (physical or emotional) will happen to them as a result of your measurements or data gathering process.

Ethics while reporting research

When writing the results of your study, you need to honestly and carefully report the procedures taken to gather and analyze the data. You need to have adequate information in your report that another researcher would be able to repeat the same study using the information provided.

When referring to previous work, citations should be carefully and correctly written. Plagiarism must be avoided. Plagiarism occurs when you quote from another source without acknowledging that source. Plagiarism is considered cheating and is a serious offence in the research arena.

Privacy is another ethical concern. Safeguarding the invasion of privacy is important. Anonymity (hide the identity of the participant) and confidentiality (keeping information confidential) are means of protection against privacy. 

Several professional codes of ethics exist to guide researchers.

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Discussion

The following items are topics for discussion during this lecture. Students should prepare their thoughts and ideas around these topics.

• The research process
• Deduction and induction (for optional reading on this topic click here)
• Components of research
• Ethical issues in research
• Research in the field of architecture

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Readings

• On research

• Brown, J.D. (1988). Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Chapter 1, pp.1-5, What is research?).

  Research strategy applied to architecture-behavior research

• Zeisel, J. (1984). Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behavior Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Chapter 5, pp.59-75, Research strategy: Approaches, designs, settings).

General References

• Babbie, E. (1998). The Practice of Social Research, 8th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
• Brown, J.D. (1988). Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Grosof, M.S. & Sardy, H. (1985). A Research Primer for the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
• Leavitt, F. (1991). Research Methods for Behavioral Scientists. IA: WCB Publishers.
• Marken, R. (1981). Methods in Experimental Psychology. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
• Zeisel, J. (1984). Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behavior Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Links

• What is research design?: A must read. An excellent account of the notations used to describe research designs.
• Types of research designs: A must read. An excellent account of determining experimental versus non experimental types of research design
• Random selection and random assignment: A must read. A clear and brief definition of both highly important concepts in research
• Validity: A must read. A conceptual discussion on validity and its types.
• Reliability. A must read. On the theory of reliability. On the types of reliability.
• Reliability and validity. The relationship between them. A must read link.

• Get to know the research news and policies in some universities in the region. Research in the UAE University.
• You may be interested to look at several research institutes around the world that specialize in a variety of fields. Large scale institutes such as NASA (look under research opportunities), national research centers such as the National Research Council in the USA, large government funding agencies such as the National Science Foundation (important site) in the USA and its affiliated research centers such as the Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers, medium scale research and academic organizations such as EDRA, IAPS, IASTE, and small scale research institutes such as the Human Environment Research Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
• So if you are interested in submitting a grant proposal why not check the guide shown at the National Science Foundation website, Grant Proposal Guide, to download the guide in PDF click this link.

• Check the electric engineer gathering data from inside a tornado Click Here   
• Check how scientists attempted to measure the height of Mount Everest Click Here 
• Check more scientific expeditions in the National Geographic Magazine website 

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This page last revised: 20/04/05