In the "wheel" of the research process (see link), data gathering comes in stage three following the problem identification and research design stages. If the design of the research is problematic, then the effort done in the data gathering may become partially or fully wasted. This lecture focuses on one major type of data gathering techniques which is observation. Observation involves the systematic and careful observation of subjects, objects, or phenomena in their natural setting. The technique is particularly useful in the field of architecture and urban design although it is extensively used in social and ethnographic research.
A. Naturalistic Observation
Sometimes called direct or non participant observation. The observer in this type is considered an OUTSIDER. One can differentiate two types of naturalistic observation:
What to look for?
Zeisel (1984) summarizes the important items to look for during the observation of environmental behavior. They are:
Who is: actor
Doing what: act
With whom: significant others
In what relationship: describes the relationship between the actor and the others such as aural, visual, tactile, olfactory, or symbolic type relationship
In what context: describes the sociocultural context including the situation and culture
Where (Setting): describes the physical setting
Recording devices
Observations can be recorded using photographs, pre-coded checklists, maps, notations, or videotapes and movies (Zeisel, 1984). Mapping observed behavior is a well known technique called behavioral mapping, which is an annotated diagram or map of observed behavior. Notations are basically written description of the observed behavior. The notation could be in the form of one sentence to which the researcher can add comments later. Pre-coded checklists are ready-made charts that include expected types of observations and a designed coding system to be used on the field.
B. Participant Observation
Participant observation is when the observer is an INSIDER. One can differentiate two types of participant observation:
Concerns with participant observation
A serious ethical concern arises when dealing with participant observation. Would the participant observer be considered cheating on the community that he became involved with?
C. Observation of Physical Traces
Observation of physical traces is a particularly useful techniques in architecture and urban design. The simplicity and unobtrusiveness of the techniques makes it one of the easiest data gathering to conduct. It could be used to gather data in early stages of the research such as for exploration or it can be used in detailed and information extensive data gathering.
What to look for?
Zeisel (1984) summarizes the important items to look for during the observation of physical traces. They are:
By-products of use: including signs of erosions, leftovers, and missing traces
Adaptations for use: including props, separations, and connections
Displays of self: including personalization, identification, and group membership
Public messages: including official, unofficial, and illegitimate signs
Context: understand how traces clarify the context and how the context clarifies the traces.
Recording devices
Observations can be recorded using photographs, drawings, annotated diagrams, or counting (Zeisel, 1984).
Comparing Observation Techniques
The following is a chart summarizing the qualities of each technique (adapted from Zeisel, 1984).
| Naturalistic | Participant | Trace |
| emphatic (feel for the character) | emphatic (feel for the character) | imageable (suggests ideas) |
| direct | direct | easy |
| variably intrusive | unobtrusive (no influence on behavior) | unobtrusive (no influence on behavior) |
| dynamic | dynamic | durable (do not quickly disappear) |
The following items are topics for discussion during this lecture. Students should prepare their thoughts and ideas around these topics.
What are the types of observational techniques?
Reasons for doing observation
What to look for during observation
What are the recording devices for observation?
What are the qualities of observing physical traces and observing environmental behavior
Zeisel, J. (1984). Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behavior Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Chapter 7, pp.89-110, Observing Physical Traces).
Zeisel, J. (1984). Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behavior Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Chapter 8, pp.111-136, Observing Environmental Behavior).
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Copyright © 2000 by Hisham S. Gabr. All rights reserved.
This page last revised: 09/05/03
