Means of acquiring knowledge
Did you ever think how you get information or know things about the world around you? Sometimes someone whom you trust tells you something you did not know before, and you tend to believe that person. Other times you may not believe what someone has told you. Maybe because this other person is not trustworthy. On occasions you may need to get a piece of information on your own. You attempt to search and use certain means to reach to what you are looking for. You might call someone who might help you find what you are looking for or you might walk down the street and find for yourself. In essence, ways that could be used to acquire knowledge about something may differ dramatically. What are those ways? And which ways would lead us to the "truth"?
Commonly known methods for acquiring knowledge are:
Mysticism: The mystical method for acquiring knowledge is the method that relies upon myth and illusion in accepting what is true. Examples are the use of magic, spiritualism, supernaturalism, or legend in convincing others of the truth. Usually this method creates false information and fabricated conclusions that are exceedingly biased and deceitful. One should exercise extreme caution when obtaining information derived from this method.
Authority: The authoritarian method for acquiring knowledge is when people with accepted sense of authority or status deliver the knowledge. This method could be useful or harmful depending on the trustworthiness of the deliverer. The authority of experts or specialists in a certain field will provide knowledge that people outside the field will depend upon. Examples include specialized physicians, specialized engineers, etc. Usually those experts have used scientific methods to acquire their knowledge, which they pass along. However, when a person delivers knowledge without having a trustworthy authority, then the knowledge gained is greatly hampered. Examples are politicians with no expertise on a certain issue, uneducated people giving advice on medical cures, etc. of cases that could make the authority person a totalitarian or dictatorial person.
Tradition: Is when knowledge about how the world works is passed along through the ages and beliefs of a particular culture or sub-culture. In this case you rely on cultural beliefs and values about what most people would consider acceptable. This method is useful in the sense that you do not have to start from scratch for the quest for knowledge, but rather you can rely on earlier beliefs and known facts to build upon new knowledge. However, this method could very well be detrimental if you do not challenge cultural beliefs or accepted knowledge. In this case the advancement of the world would be severely jeopardized.
Intuition: Is when knowledge is accumulated merely on your intuition rather than on substantial facts. This method could obviously be problematic if you build conclusions upon intuitions that turn out to be unreliable or untrue. On the other hand, intuition could be a very useful starting point for future research by providing ideas predicting possible outcomes, which could be followed by a rigorous investigation--the scientific method.
Science: The scientific method, which is the method generally accepted to bring out the truth of world matters, is a series of systematic and rigorous investigative procedures in an attempt to eliminate bias and develop explanations of events. Science is distinguished from nonscientific activities in that science organizes facts, formulate laws and theories, and is subject to empirical testing.
What could be wrong with nonscientific or casual ways of looking at reality? You could make an error when guessing about something that you are unsure of. You can also make an inaccurate observation. If you were asked to remember what kind of material was used in the interior walls of a building that you visited during a field trip, the answers would vary and you could disagree with one another. Another common error is our tendency to over generalize events. In other words, you see some behavior occurring from a small group of people (or one building material) and you tend to expect this behavior to occur on larger groups of people (on the entire material chain). For example, if you were seeking an answer to why tinted glass cladding is used along the facades of a dozen buildings. When you ask the owners of two buildings and they give you the same reason, you assume the other buildings use tinted glass cladding for the same reasons, which may not be the case. Maybe the rest of the owners have a common but different reason from the one mentioned by the first two owners. Another possible error is our illogical reasoning of things that happen around us. A well known example is the fallacy of "the exception that proves the rule" that some of us may believe in. An exception can in no logical way prove the rule it contradicts. (this paragraph adapted from Babbie, 1998, p.20-21, refer to the reference for further discussion of these errors).
Just imagine what would be the case if judges, lawyers, investigators and prosecutors are not systematic and accurate in their search for the truth. Many innocent people would more likely be behind bars. Just imagine physicians relying totally on tradition or authority or intuition when handling sick patients, the world would probably be less populated than it is right now. Science is not only a "good" way to learn about the world but also a safeguard for humans against oppression, myth, ignorance, and underdevelopment.
The scientific method
"Science is a search for relationships between variables. Scientists observe and experiment to determine how one variable changes with another. Then they try to find equations that relate the variables mathematically and they create theories to explain the equations." (Leavitt, 1991, p.14).
"The scientific method may initially be described as a cyclic process through which human beings learn from experience. As evidence accumulates, theories in better and better agreement with the actual functioning of nature can be formulated. Research is the process, procedure, or strategy by which the scientific method is applied." (Grosof & Sardy, 1985, p.11).
The same errors discussed above under the previous subtitle are easily eliminated when we use the scientific approach of searching for reality. Inaccurate observations are replaced by accurate and deliberate observations. One needs to be very cautious when generalizing the findings or discoveries. All scientific endeavors must follow some logical reasoning. The following table compares scientific and nonscientific methods of inquiry.
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Goals of science
Explanation and prediction are the ultimate goals of science.
Understanding is another supplementary goal. It is a sufficient goal when explanation and prediction are not yet possible. At least, achieving an understanding helps make some sense of the world around us.
You may understand an event occurring without having a clear explanation for the reasons of its occurrence. However, when you are able to explain an occurrence, then you would have already understood it. You may explain why a certain behavior occurs but you are unable to predict what would happen if circumstances change. Other times you may predict something to happen without really understanding or explaining why it happens. Explaining why an event occurs involves knowing the causal relationship involved in the phenomenon under investigation.
The what and why questions asked in science: What will happen if such and such happens? Why does something happen the way it does?
Theory: Building a good theory is the pinnacle of scientific achievement. Theory is the manifestation of explanation and prediction. Theory explains phenomena and is used to predict phenomena.
Characteristics of science
Science is characterized by many attributes. Some are already mentioned in the previous table. The following are a summary of important attributes of science.
Involves systematic observations
Involves the search for relationships between variables
Involves empirical testing
Seeks the development of explanatory theory
The following are generally accepted assumptions of science:
Nature is orderly, suggesting the possibility to discover and comprehend patterns of occurring events
We can know nature, suggesting the possibility to know the world around us using the available tools around us
Knowledge is superior to ignorance, suggesting human beings desire to improve their understanding of the world and seek to make the world a better place
All natural phenomena have natural causes, suggesting that causes exist for every effect (an action has a reaction)
Nothing is self evident, suggesting that search for real truth is necessary in spite of appearances or beliefs
Knowledge is derived from the acquisition of experience, suggesting the importance of relying on experience and observations to acquire knowledge
The following are some generally accepted limitations of science:
Certain kinds of questions are difficult if not impossible to answer using scientific methods. Can you think of some? Those that can be answered by science are questions about observational statements (i.e. those that can be empirically tested and verified).
Absolute truth cannot be reached. That is why we keep having new theories that replace older theories. Consequently, scientists often disagree because of their different value systems and their effect on all phases of the scientific investigation.
The following items are topics for discussion during this lecture. Students should prepare their thoughts and ideas around these topics.
Tradition and authority
Scientific inquiry
Characteristics of science
Importance of scientific inquiry
Scientific versus nonscientific way of thinking
Is science value-free?
Examples of scientific achievements
Author unknown (1990, January). Twenty science attitudes. The Rational Enquirer, vol.3, 3.Retrieved August 10, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://psg.com/~ted/bcskeptics/ratenq/Re3.3-Attitude.html.
Latura, B. (Date unknown). The scientific method. Retrieved August 5, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://home.xnet.com/~blatura/skep_1.html
PBS (Date unknown). Einstein announces the general theory of relativity 1915. A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries. Retrieved August 4, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dp15ei.html
Influential books on philosophy of science:
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Copyright © 2000 by Hisham S. Gabr. All rights reserved.
This page last revised: 09/05/03
